Natural-born cyborgs: minds, technologies, and the future of human intelligence

Book by Andy Clark

This reading is a real challenge to the average understanding of the relationship between human and technology. In his introduction to the writing, A. Clark successfully draws the picture of human as a "natural-born cyborg" (Clark, 2003, pp. 3-5, Introduction). His examples varing from the mobile-phone extended arm to the human-machine hybrids are illustrating the proposed ideas clearly and surely add interesting aspects to the analyses.

Clark takes to the center of his analyses every-day tools and activities which interrelate minds and worlds to eachother (Clark, 2003, pp. 5-6). He points out that what differentiates human from all other living species in the world is his ability of having "extended mental life" (Clark, 2003, p. 7) with the help of "tool-based extensions" (Clark, 2003, p.10).

I find that he approaches to the concept of cyborg from very humanly position. With his words: "For we shall be cyborgs not in the merely superficial sense of combining flesh and wires but in the more profound sense of being human-technology symbionts: thinking and reasoning systems whose minds and selves are spread accross the biological brain and nonbiological circuitry." (cit. Clark, 2003, p. 3) This nicely posed sentence pretty much draws the borderline to the definition of cyborgs used in the book but also expands the more known concept of it.

Interesting is to follow how he introduces the facts and smoothly combines every-day stories, such as ride to work, with the exclusive examples, such as the case of Professor Warwick's. Based on the introduction and first chapter I would say it is interesting and surely must read writing.

Artificial Intelligence and The Many Faces of Reason

Paper by Andy Clark

The Core idea of the writing is trying to analyze how is rationing mechanically possible. A. Clark suggests that we are in the crucial place where the Artificial Intelligence and Philosophy of Mind meet, thus we lack terms on which to understand one to facilitate the other.

Analyses of the "reason governed behaviour" have showed that it is possible to create connections which would be mechanically explainable as the operation of appropriate computational processes on symbols (p.4). Thus "rationality without representation" proves to be too abstract for a system to coordinate the activity with the distal and the non-existent (p.10).

One reason for the difference is that "rational behaviour is, in some sense, behaviour that is guided by, or sensitive to, reason"(cit. p. 10). For human reason if deeply interwoven with human emotion (p. 11). This is is considered one of the major challenges for the next generation of Artificial Intelligence models, as emotions can be contradicting the reason (p. 11).

Similar defects in reasoning could be attributed to the absence of somatic cues, which results in inability to have the on-the-spot unconscious negative responses" (p. 13). Another source of complications is the "global properties of belief systems" (Fodor in p. 14) when Artificial Intelligence is confronting various forms of more globally sensitive inference (p. 14). Fodor's "pessimistic scenario" questioning the future of the global cognitive processes is also introduced and confronted with authors' ideas. For analysing the information over-load theory Clark also explains the problem of using information (especially routing and searching) and suggests that the advancements with the innovative "second-order search" could bring some potential solutions making more steps computationally tractable (p. 16).

His conclusions are that it is not yet clear "how is rationality mechanically possible", research should reveal what one needs to explain in order to understand. In his view, "the solution can itself be seen as a special instance of a fast and frugal heuristic: a cheap procedure that replaces global content-based search with something else" (cit. p.17).

Overall there are many aspects to consider when one tries to analyse the reason and sometimes what is considered humane is not  pure reasoning but rather the mistakes that take place in our reasoning. Not always do people do what they desire, nor choose for the things that would be "the best" or just follow their simple intuitions of logic.

Cyborgs and Space

Article by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline

The paper discusses the evolutionary aspect of alterations on humans and the availability for taking such challenges. As Clynes and Kline put it "altering man's bodily functions to meet the requirements of extraterrestrial environments would be more logical than providing an earthly environment for him in space." The discussion is based on space travels and the technological and spiritual requirements it sets for human adaption to the environment. They suggest that artifact-organism systems which would extend man's unconscious self-regulatory controls are one possibility for that.

Organisms are constructed to be self-regulating and bodily-environments are stable to maintain that balance. Humans have learned how to control some of the environments in which human naturally cannot survive and offered solutions with the help of technology. Same way we are faced with the challenge to adapt with the environment outside this planet.

Clynes and Kline suggest that there are devices which are neccessary for creating self-regulatory manmachine system, that they call "cyborg". In their opinion cyborg would be one way to improve human with different self-regulating systems which would take effect using bodily functions in ways similar to yoga or perhaps hypnosis, to help to adapt human body to different environments.

The article explains that such systems should be without consciousness in order to cooperate with the body's own autonomous homeostatic controls" (cit. Clyne and Klein, 1960) and "function as self-regulatory control function of the organism to adapt it to new environments" (cit. Clyne and Klein, 1960) so man does not have to control and regulate everything to take care of his bodily functions and survival but can concentrate on discovering, sensing and feeling (Clyne and Klein, 1960).

The article gives solution to the list of different psycho-physiological problems, such as wakefullness, radiation effects, metabolic problems, hypothermic problems, oxygenenization and carbon dioxide removal,  fluid intake and out-put,  enzyme systems, vestibular functions, cardiovascular control, muscular maintenance, perceptual problems, pressure, variations in external temperature, gravitation, magnetic fields, sensory inuariance and action deprivation, psychoses, limbo. The authors have brought out that there are many other problems, medical to pharmaceutical, but these discussed in the paper should give "the indication as to what the Cyborg can mean in terms of space travel" (cit. Clyne and Klein, 1960).

In conclusion, the reading was offering intersting discoveries and proved yet again that the limitations to the evolution are somewhat in our hands. Curiosity in the infinite possibilities leads the reasearches in these areas and limitations are not only physical but many are also mental. I find this article rather inspirating and surely it has showed me some new directions for future studies.

Intellectuals & Power: A conversation between Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze

It was especially interesting to follow the discussion of Foucault and Deleuze with their up-to-date problem in hand. Their discussion brings Intellectuals and power on the scene, contradicted and faced in multiple aspects through society and politics. 

Foucault and Deleuze both agree that the meanings of theory and intelligents have drastically changed to meet the needs of the society (pp.1-6). The discussion starts with the relationship between theory and practice, where in creation of knowledge all theories have to pass certain  obstacles, and practices are needed to confront the obstacles. (Deleuze p. 1). In Deleuze's words there is a system within a multiplicity of parts that are both theoretical and practical. Within that the meaning of theorizing intellectual changes, he is no longer a representing or representative consciousness but becomes multiplicity (Deleuze p.1). Foucault brings this same intellectual to face the politics. Where the power and politics come in, intellectuals have contradicting roles: one is producing or imposing the recognized ideology and other is revealing the partial truth, the latter one slowly rejected by the authorities (Foucault pp.1-2). This is where the turning point comes; masses do not need intellectuals any more, they have access to knowledge, they can know and express themselves and in such system intellectuals become the agents of the system of power (Foucault p. 2). This in turn is where the nature of theory comes out and therefore intellectuals role is to oppose the power (p.2) that turns him into his "object and instrument in the sphere of "knowledge", "truth", "consciousness" and "discourse"" (p.2 ). Therefore theory becomes the struggle aimed at revealing and undermining the power (Foucault p. 2). In Deleuze's addition "theory is  enmeshed in a particular point, we realise that it will never possess the slightest practical importance unless it can erupt in a totally different area" (cit. Deleuze p.2). Theory is an instrument for multiplication (p.2) and reality is what actually happens not the information carried and imposed by the power (Deleuze p. 4). They reach to the conclusion that "relationship between desire, power and interest is more complex" (p. 5) and there are always struggles as to whose interests will be in execution. And every revolutionary act is this way linked to the "workers'struggle" (p.6).

In my opinion this discussion clearly illustrates the significance and formation of the collective knowledge and accounts for the credibility of theories today. Many aspects of the discussion draw examples from various social problems and it again shows that everything is interrelated. For finding the truth one has to look far beyond the facts and revelations considering the suggested lines of power.

Cyborg Urbanization: Complexity and Monstrosity in the Contemporary City

Article by Matthew Gandy in International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, March 2005.

The paper begins with the introduction to the notion of Cyborgs, as it is visioned trough media, then opposed by the theoretical approach opening new possibilities. The idea of cyborg relates to different concepts, among which one of the wast size is cyberspace, in text "urban city" consisting of series of interconnected life-support systems (p.28). The connectivity within and between the systems extends throgh urban space and produce a "multi-layered structure of extraordinary complexity and utility" (p.28).

Gandy analyzes the nature of urban city based on various theories. He reveals the differences of approches derived from various aspects. "Organicist emphasis on the city as an integrated body with identifiable organs...has been displaced by the idea of urban space as a prosthetic extension to the human body" (cit. p.29).  It is considered more of a hybridized concept of space as a "system of technological devices that enhances human productive and imaginative capabilities" (p. 29). What we find is blurring of boundaries between, so far considered sepparate, mind and body (p. 29).

Gandy visualizes different aspects and levels compromised in the questinons of biological organisms, mechanical and urban city, and reveals the interconnections and links on various levels. He concludes that these sepparations that we have made will become hard to prove within this interconnected system (p.42). For the future he sees the challenges to cease control over certain areas, in his words "the cyberslums of the future will be the living embodiment of the contradictions inherent in a technologically rather than politically driven strategy for the creation of more socially inclusive cities" (cit. p.42).

In conclusion, the reading is interesting as it draws examples from different levels and seeks for support from variety of theories. The analyses that underline the discussion are based on global variety of research and opinion, which give intresting nyances to the topic.  Gandy successfully reasons the connectedness of the systems and expands the notion of cyborg from that of an organism to the entity.

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction

Article by Walter Benjamin (1936) transcribed by A.Blunden 1998.


The article covers the developmental tendencies of art, its concepts changing from creativity, genius, eternal value and mystery to those of mass-serving and formulation of "revolutionary demands in the politics of art" (p.2). The significant changes can be attributed to the advancement and new discoveries related to technology.

Mechanical reproduction brings new impacts to the meaning and interpretation of art. Such as photography which "frees the hand of the most important artistic functions" (p.2) and accelerated the process of pictorial reproduction to keep pace with speech (p.3). Photography helps to capture images that escape the naked eye and make it possible to place the copy of the original into "situations which would be out of reach for the original itself" (p.4).


"The authenticity of a thing is the essence of all that is transmissible from its beginning, ranging from its substantive duration to its testimony to the history which it has experienced" (p.4), where each object of art has its aura. The historical circumstances determine the medium for organizing the human sense perception and these changes are the medium of social transformations (p. 5). The process of reality adjusting to the masses and masses to reality is of unlimited scope (p.5).

Works of art are received and valued based on their cult and exhibition values. When originally artistic production is that of ceremonial objects destined to serve in a cult then today the work of art has absolute emphasis in its exhibition value (p. 7). This shifts the reality of the production where there is illusionary nature of movie as a result of cutting (p. 12). But for the reality presented by film is incomparably more significant than that of a painter, as it offers an aspect of reality which is free of all equipment (p. 13). Camera also reveals the unconscious optics that remain invisible to the naked eye (p.15). Thus the aura of technology facilitated production is fading to the background putting the public in the role of the unconscious critic (p.17). And mass directs the traditional behaviour towards works of art to a new form, where quality has replaced the quantity (p. 16). It is a commonplace that masses look for distraction but art asks for concentration (p. 17).

In conclusion there are various aspects that determine the meaning and popularity of a work of art. Where masses decide for the paths there the work of are is less concentrated and not total one as it composes of multiple particles separated and joined to each other offering a new representation to the reality.